A previous study tested this hypothesis using 3D facial images and genetic variation in the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region and found weak evidence to support this (Zaidi et al., 2018). Age prediction using methylation techniques have indicated a mean absolute deviation of 58 years (Xu et al., 2015; Bocklandt et al., 2011; Hamano et al., 2017). Three-dimensional analysis of facial morphology surface changes in untreated children from 12 to 14 years of age. Mol. However, to date one study has indicated that maternal smoking may interact with the GRID2 and ELAVL2 genes resulting in cleft lip and palate (Beaty et al., 2013). Res. doi: 10.1007/s00439-013-1283-6, Beldie, L., Walker, B., Lu, Y., Richmond, S., and Middleton, J. doi: 10.1016/S1470-2045(16)30054-7, Al Ali, A., Richmond, S., Popat, H., Playle, R., Pickles, T., Zhurov, A. I., et al. Enhancers have a specific role in the expression of a target gene in different cells, anatomical regions and during different developmental time-points (Visel et al., 2009; Attanasio et al., 2013; Wilderman et al., 2018). Dev. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.1330120412, Wickstrm, R. (2007). Zaidi, A. Genomic views of distant-acting enhancers. louiseber 5 yr. ago. PLoS Genet. 171, 771780. - Disentangling the environmental factors and relative parental biological contributions to heritable traits can help to answer the age-old question why we look the way that we do?. Assessment and judgment of the face and body can be traced back to the ancient Greeks and Egyptians when mathematical methods such as Fibonacci series and the golden proportion (1:1.618) were applied to art and architecture as a method of defining attractiveness and beauty (Ricketts, 1982). Legal Med. Development 126, 48734884. Genome-wide association meta-analysis of individuals of European ancestry identifies new loci explaining a substantial fraction of hair color variation and heritability. Oral Maxillofac. WebThese are the major differences between an Irish and a Scottish accent. 11, 154158. All authors actively participated in editing of the manuscript. Early growth genetics consortium. Development 143, 26772688. There were subtle differences between males and females in relation to the relative prominence of the lips, eyes, and nasal bridges including minor facial asymmetries (Toma et al., 2008, 2012; Wilson et al., 2013; Abbas et al., 2018). Genet. B., Manyama, M., Kimwaga, E., Mathayo, J., Larson, J. R., Liberton, D. K., et al. (2014). Genet. Sci. Genet. J. Hum. J. Hum. 115, 561597. Previous studies have found strong evidence supporting associations between prenatal smoke exposure (Joubert et al., 2016) and folate supplementation (Richmond R.C. 47, 12361241. J. Phys. Differences in horizontal, neoclassical facial canons in Chinese (Han) and North American Caucasian populations. (2016). (2006). The dimorphic differences appear to follow similar patterns in different ethnic groups (Farnell et al., 2017). 17, e178e180. A genome-wide association study of cleft lip with and without cleft palate identifies risk variants near MAFB and ABCA4. Lond. There has been significant progress in the first 6 years of GWAS and facial genetics. It originated in the 1500's and is always performed to traditional Irish music. Genet. (2016). 8:e1002932. WebIn the combinations sc/sg and st/sd , Irish now uses sc and st , while Scottish Gaelic uses sg and both sd and st , despite there being no phonetic difference between the two languages. doi: 10.1038/s41588-018-0065-4, Farkas, L. G., Eiben, O. G., Sivkov, S., Tompson, B., Katic, M. J., and Forrest, C. R. (2004). doi: 10.1038/ng.2971, Van der Beek, M. C., Hoeksma, J. car auctions brisbane airport. 2. Heritability studies have provided insight into the possible genetic and environmental contributions to face shape. Previously published studies that have identified gene-phenotype associations which provides evidence of associations for complex facial traits which can be integrated into prediction models. A proposed multivariate model for prediction of facial growth. Behav. (2017). Standardized clinical facial charts/tables/measures are routinely used for newborns (e.g., head circumference, body length) and other specialties such as, ophthalmology and orthodontics. 23, 44524464. (2018). Nat. Facial development occurs very early at a time when the mother is not always aware that she is pregnant. This includes high cheekbones, a bent nose, reddish brown skin tone and coarse, dark hair. eds G. J. Huang, R. S., K.W.L. 15, 335346. Science 354, 760764. Arch. J. Orthod. Acad. WebThey were white-skinned with black hair. (2014). 59(Suppl. Detection and interpretation of shared genetic influences on 42 human traits. Mind the gap: genetic manipulation of basicranial growth within synchondroses modulates calvarial and facial shape in mice through epigenetic interactions. doi: 10.1136/adc.41.220.613. Eur. Int. TABLE 3. Different genetic models, genotyping and imputation techniques have been employed and the between-study heterogeneity should be considered. Forensic Sci. Clin. doi: 10.1007/s12024-006-0007-9, Wilson, C., Playle, R., Toma, A., Zhurov, A., Ness, A., and Richmond, S. (2013). There was also greater asymmetry in the nsCL/P group (LEFTY1, LEFTY2, and SNAI1) (Miller et al., 2014). (2015). (2009). In brief: Gaelic in Scottish is pronounced as Gah-Lick whereas it is pronounce as Gai-Lick in Irish. Hoyme, H. E., Kalberg, W. O., Elliott, A. J., Blankenship, J., Buckley, D., Marais, A. S., et al. Investigating the case of human nose shape and climate adaptation. Furthermore, craniofacial sub-phenotypes have been observed in nsCL/P cases and their unaffected family members such as orbicularis oris muscle defects and facial shape differences supporting the existence of nsCL/P related sub-phenotypes (Stanier and Moore, 2004; Marazita, 2007; Neiswanger et al., 2007; Menezes and Vieira, 2008; Weinberg et al., 2009; Aspinall et al., 2014). A 3D morphometric perspective for facial gender analysis and classification using geodesic path curvature features. They are roughly the same regardless of language, because of mixed ancestry over a long time. After the ice age, the first hunter-gatherers came wi doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddt104, Cousminer, D. L., Stergiakouli, E., Berry, D. J., Ang, W., Groen-Blokhuis, M. M., Krner, A., et al. Genet. J. Epidemiol. Int. Res. For an individual who can sit still with a neutral facial posture in natural head position, the speed of capture is not critical. The face develops very early in gestation and facial development is closely related to the cranial neural crest cells. Int. Twin studies have historically been employed to explore the relative genetic and environment influence on facial shape exploiting the genetic differences between monozygotic and dizygotic twins (Visscher et al., 2008). Maternal smoking during pregnancy is associated with mitochondrial DNA methylation. J. Med. Nat. Identification of individuals by trait prediction using whole-genome sequencing data. 21, 548553. And, linguistically speaking, the fact that Scottish English only developed three centuries ago makes this accent one of the newest accents in the British Isles. (2016). Natl. Exploring the underlying genetics of craniofacial morphology through various sources of knowledge. doi: 10.1111/ocr.12012, Djordjevic, J., Lawlor, D. A., Zhurov, A. I., Toma, A. M., Playle, R., and Richmond, S. (2013b). 122, 680690. 9:462. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00462. (2016). doi: 10.1038/nrg2322, Weinberg, S., Naidoo, S., Bardi, K., Brandon, C., Neiswanger, K., Resick, J., et al. A population-based cross-sectional study of the association between facial morphology and cardiometabolic risk factors in adolescence. The Ceili Dances consist of quadrilles, reels, jigs and long or round dances. Science 342:1241006. doi: 10.1126/science.1241006, Barlow, A. J., Bogardi, J. P., Ladher, R., and Francis-West, P. H. (1999). Some people believe that Scottish and Irish DNA is similar, while others believe that it is not. The evolution of human skin coloration. There have been nine GWAS studies and it is appropriate to try and integrate their findings through a meta-analysis. Dis. Craniofacial epigenetic studies to date have largely focused on orofacial clefts. The authors would like to thank Dr. Ryan Arathimos (University of Bristol) for advice on a draft of the manuscript. Biol. WebThe facial features tend to be soft and boyish in men and youthful in women. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1002932, Mamluk, L., Edwards, H. B., Savovic, J., Leach, V., Jones, T., Moore, T. H. M., et al. Oral Med. In a female, the width is roughly the same proportion, but the foot is just longer than the face is high, and the hand is at most 3/4 of the same height. Homo 61, 191203. Head Face Med. In addition, genetic and environmental factors will have subtle influences on the face. Disruption in early embryological development can lead to wide-ranging effects from subtle neurologic and facial features, which includes asymmetry, to significant impact on facial shape as characterized by a CL/P or in anomalies observed in craniofacial syndromes. doi: 10.1093/ije/dyg070, Som, P. M., and Naidich, T. P. (2013). There are many imaging systems available to capture the external facial surface topography such as photography, lasers, photogrammetry, magnetic resonance Imaging (MRI), computerized tomography (CT), and cone beam computerized tomography (CBCT). Acad. Understanding the face will explain why we look the way we do a range of normality and abnormality that will be useful in healthcare applications and forensic science. Key transcriptional factors (activators or repressors) have been identified indicating extensive activation during early craniofacial development. (2018). doi: 10.1002/ajpa.20424. Sharp, G. C., Arathimos, R., Reese, S. E., Page, C. M., Felix, J., Kpers, L. K., et al. Proc. Simultaneous advances in genotyping technology have enabled the exploration of genetic influences on facial phenotypes, both in the present day and across human history. doi: 10.1002/humu.22054, Heike, C. L., Upson, K., Stuhaug, E., and Weinberg, S. M. (2010). Genet. High-resolution epigenomic atlas of human embryonic craniofacial development. doi: 10.1179/14653121042885, Popat, H., Richmond, S., Marshall, D., and Rosin, P. L. (2012). Cleft. The timing, vectors and duration of surges in facial growth tend to be different for males and females and between populations contributing to overall facial variation (Kau et al., 2010; Hopman et al., 2014; Richmond R.C. doi: 10.1098/rspb.2000.1327, Little, A. C., Penton-Voak, I. S., Burt, D. M., and Perrett, D. I. doi: 10.1097/00001665-200403000-00027, Farkas, L. G., Katic, M. J., and Forrest, C. R. (2005). The aim will be to continually develop and advance existing computerized tools and algorithms to solve these complex problems and this will require a multidisciplinary and internationally based team. These landmarks are defined by identifiable/describable facial features, e.g., nasion, inner/outer canthi, commissures that can generate Euclidean distances, angles, and ratios (Farkas et al., 2002, 2004, 2005). 1),S126S146. 2. Genetics 205, 967978. Kau, C. H., Richmond, S., Zhurov, A., Ovsenik, M., Tawfik, W., Borbely, P., et al. Nat. The role of sonic hedgehog in normal and abnormal craniofacial morphogenesis. 13:e1007081. The influence of genetic variation is also evident in non-consanguineous families, where dental and facial characteristics are common among siblings and passed on from parents to their offspring (Hughes et al., 2014). Disruptions in the fusion of the facial processes may result in complete or partial clefts of the face, lip and/or palate. (2018c). Epigenetic regulation in neural crest development. Nat. Facial shape and features are the result of mutations, genetic drift, recombination and natural selection. PLoS Genet. Genetic and facial phenotype data can be used to improve understanding of human history. Firstly we have to put in mind that that both the Celtic and Germanic are a Northern and Central European people. Thus as Europeans from those regi et al., 2018). U.S.A. 107(Suppl. Fine tuning of craniofacial morphology by distant-acting enhancers. A number of Scottish people have a wavy texture to their hair. AJNR Am. Genome-wide mapping of global-to-local genetic effects on human facial shape. Schizophr. Genet. 2003. Epigenet. PLoS One 6:e14821. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Indeed, there is evidence to suggest that high levels of prenatal alcohol exposure can influence facial morphology; individuals with fetal alcohol syndrome disorders can present with facial abnormalities (Hoyme et al., 2016) as well as other developmental anomalies such as caudate nucleus asymmetry and reduced mass of the brain (Suttie et al., 2018). Distinct DNA methylation profiles in subtypes of orofacial cleft. Why are Irish Pale? (2017). Jaenisch, R., and Bird, A. doi: 10.1093/ejo/cjs107, Al Ali, A., Richmond, S., Popat, H., Toma, A. M., Playle, R., Zhurov, A. I., et al. Rep. 7:2441. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-02721-0. Sci. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0162250, Evans, D. M. (2018). Dev. Hum. However, there is a limited amount of evidence that epigenetic inheritance may carry over multiple generations (Schmidt and Kornfeld, 2016; Gluckman et al., 2007). Those distillation processes might not seem like a big difference, but the effect is pretty pronounced. Epigenomics 10, 2742. Res. The sheer volume of data collected in imaging genetics from images (hundreds of thousands of points), omics datasets (genomics, transcriptomics and cell-specific expression signals etc. doi: 10.1093/ejo/21.2.137, Visel, A., Rubin, E. M., and Pennacchio, L. A. Historically, craniofacial genetic research has understandably focused on identifying the causes of craniofacial anomalies and it has only been within the last 10 years, that there has been a drive to detail the biological basis of normal-range facial variation. Medical Image Understanding and Analysis. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00190, Freund, M. K., Burch, K., Shi, H., Mancuso, N., Kichaev, G., Garske, K. M., et al. 5, 213222. However, the effects of lower levels of prenatal alcohol exposure on facial morphology are less clear (Mamluk et al., 2017; Muggli et al., 2017; Howe et al., 2018c). (2018a). 19, 12631269. Phenotype-specific enrichment of Mendelian disorder genes near GWAS regions across 62 complex traits. A 161a, 412. The various acquisition techniques (photographs, MRI, laser and photogrammetry) have been used in different studies and all have identified the PAX3 gene associated with the shape of the nasal root area (Liu et al., 2012; Paternoster et al., 2012; Adhikari et al., 2016; Shaffer et al., 2016; Claes et al., 2018). Statistical power and significance testing in large-scalegenetic studies. Int. Peter Forsberg (hockey player) (Notice how his eyes are higher up. Genet. WebYou may have porcelain, pale skin, or you may have freckles that outnumber the days of the year, but your features will be pleasantly proportioned and your eyes bright, with a genuine smile that lights up your face. Surg. B Biol. 16, 146160. Do Irish people have hooded eyelids? Finite element modelling of maxillofacial surgery and facial expressionsa preliminary study. Genet. 1), 101116. WebThe website faceresearch.org allows you to participate in short online psychology experiments looking at the traits people find attractive in faces and voices. 47, 928937. Identifying genetic variants influencing facial phenotypes can lead to improved etiological understanding of craniofacial anomalies, advances in forensic prediction using DNA and testing of evolutionary hypotheses. 33, 817825. 12, 615618. Embryonic features that contribute to facial development. SR and LH outlined the overall manuscript. Large-scale in-vivo Caucasian facial soft tissue thickness database for craniofacial reconstruction. Strong levels of phenotypic and genotypic spousal assortment have been previously demonstrated for height (Robinson et al., 2017) and similar methods could be applied using facial phenotypes to explore the influences of facial morphology on mate choice. PLoS One 11:e0162250. Natl. 22, 12681271. Features: Some Swedes have a full faces, with the eyes high up. (2013). Nat. (2012). Shaffer, J. R., Li, J., Lee, M. K., Roosenboom, J., Orlova, E., Adhikari, K., et al. Nature 461, 199205. Am. International anthropometric study of facial morphology in various ethnic groups/races. doi: 10.1111/j.1601-6343.2009.01462.x, Weiner, J. S. (1954). doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2017.0778, Munn, L., and Stephan, C. N. (2018). Non-genomic transgenerational inheritanceof disease risk. Dev. doi: 10.1002/bies.20522, Gven, O. This is where the Scottish and Irish kilts differ the most, as the tartan in which the kilts are made have very different origins and meanings. doi: 10.1016/0002-9416(79)90274-4, Biedermann, A., Bozza, S., and Taroni, F. (2015). doi: 10.1111/ipd.12072, Attanasio, C., Nord, A. S., Zhu, Y., Blow, M. J., Li, Z., Liberton, D. K., et al. The shade NW10 is very pale. E LBP. In addition, the individual facial traits have yielded impressive levels of significance using a relatively small number of subjects (Evans, 2018). Does sexual dimorphism in facial soft tissue depths justify sex distinction in craniofacial identification? Med. empire medical training membership. Reconstr. Initial Results of Multilevel Principal Components Analysis of Facial Shape. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1097-0177(199904)214:4<291::AID-AJA2>3.0.CO;2-E, Beaty, T. H., Murray, J. C., Marazita, M. L., Munger, R. G., Ruczinski, I., Hetmanski, J. Rev. One or more facial landmarks can be used to generate principal components, geodesic distances, geodesic arrays, facial shells and signatures which can categorize patterns in facial features (Hammond and Suttie, 2012; Hallgrimsson et al., 2015; Tsagkrasoulis et al., 2017; Abbas et al., 2018). (2014). Oral Pathol. BMJ Open 5:e009027. The long-term impact of folic acid in pregnancy on offspring DNA methylation: follow-up of the Aberdeen Folic Acid Supplementation Trial (AFAST). Genetic and environmental influences on growth from late childhood to adulthood: a longitudinal study of two Finnish twin cohorts. Differences in relative size, shape and spatial arrangement (vertical, horizontal and depth) between the various facial features (e.g., eyes, nose, lips etc.) This approach may be appropriate for unique facial characteristics but is more challenging when one or more genes are associated with the variation of facial phenotype (e.g., prominence of the nasal bridge or length of the nose, hair and eye color/tones). With improving knowledge of the controlling mechanisms for normal and abnormal facial development, it is logical to pursue healthcare strategies in the first instance to prevent craniofacial anomalies arising, with discussion of risks with genetic counseling, possibly future gene therapies and the follow up with minimally invasive or non-surgical, scarless procedures to correct craniofacial anomalies such as cleft lip and palate and control vertical and horizontal growth particularly of the upper and lower jaws and nose. Dyn. 67, 489497. Evol. Int. J. Epidemiol. 13, 105108; discussion 109110. This initiative has been facilitated by the availability of low-cost hi-resolution three-dimensional systems which have the ability to capture the facial details of thousands of individuals quickly and accurately. doi: 10.1093/ejo/18.6.549, Van Otterloo, E., Williams, T., and Artinger, K. B. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006616. The generated images were 3D digital stereophotogrammetry: a practical guide to facial image acquisition. Dent. J. (2009). Feeling a bit down, have a cup of tea. (2014, 2018) provide efficient and valid analyses and arguably more importantly, visual linkages between genetic variants and global shape. Palate. Sharman, N. (2011). 33:245. B., and Prahl-Andersen, B. They intermarried with other tribes in Ireland and the results were blue and green-eyed people with black hair and fair skin. From birth to adulthood there are significant body and facial changes. Genome-wide association study reveals multiple loci influencing normal human facial morphology. This has been proposed as a method to build a profile of facial features from a sample of DNA (Claes et al., 2014) but could also be used to determine previous health history or future health risks (Idemyor, 2014). Fatemifar, G., Hoggart, C. J., Paternoster, L., Kemp, J. P., Prokopenko, I., Horikoshi, M., et al. Copyright 2018 Richmond, Howe, Lewis, Stergiakouli and Zhurov. Mendelian randomization: can genetic epidemiology contribute to understanding environmental determinants of disease? Natl. (2018). The teeth and faces of twins: providing insights into dentofacial development and oral health for practising oral health professionals. doi: 10.1016/B978-0-12-801311-3.00002-0, Reik, W. (2007). Rep. 5:17788. doi: 10.1038/srep17788, Xuan, Z., Zhongpeng, Y., Yanjun, G., Jiaqi, D., Yuchi, Z., Bing, S., et al. (2012). Irish Ceili (pronounced "kay-lee) Dancing is a very traditional dance form. Proportionality in Asian and North American Caucasian faces using neoclassical facial canons as criteria. Post-natally, facial growth tends to follow general somatic growth with periods of steady increments in size interspersed with periods of rapid growth with the peak growth occurring at puberty (Tanner et al., 1966a,b; Bhatia et al., 1979; Kau and Richmond, 2008; Richmond et al., 2009; Richmond S. et al., 2018). (2011). They are, of course, there, but literally at units. Cleft lip and palate. Facial phenotypes can influence mate choice and be under selection pressures. Reliability of measuring facial morphology with a 3-dimensional laser scanning system. Science 343, 747751. Forensic DNA Phenotyping: predicting human appearance from crime scene material for investigative purposes. (2018). Proc. FIGURE 1. First, a major issue is that epigenetic modifications can vary across different tissues. Genomic medicine: health care issues and the unresolved ethical and social dilemmas. Int. Int. 67, 261268. *Correspondence: Stephen Richmond, r[emailprotected], The Genes and Mechanisms Underlying Normal-Range Craniofacial Variation, View all There was reduced facial convexity (SNAI1), obtuse nasolabial angles, more protrusive chins (SNAI1, IRF6, MSX1, MAFB), increased lower facial heights (SNAI1), thinner and more retrusive lips and more protrusive foreheads (ABCA4-ARHGAP29, MAFB) in the nsCL/P relatives compared to controls. The US cancer moonshot initiative. The modifiable nature of epigenetic processes has led to much excitement that these processes may mediate the effect of environmental exposures. Scots also have pale complexions and blue eyes. (2016). Rev. doi: 10.1007/s002669900123. Cell Rep. 23, 15811597. Surgical procedures are not always simple as often in CL/P patients there is often insufficient tissues available (epidermis/dermis, cartilage and bone with disrupted orientation of muscle fibers). The Irish temperament is world-famous. Genet. Sci. doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.12.021, Peng, S., Tan, J., Hu, S., Zhou, H., Guo, J., Jin, L., et al. Dis. Birth Defects Res. 3. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007501, Howe, L. J., Richardson, T. G., Arathimos, R., Alvizi, L., Passos-Bueno, M.-R., Stanier, P., et al. Pflugers. TABLE 2. DNA methylation in newborns and maternal smoking in pregnancy: genome-wide consortium meta-analysis. WebWhen autocomplete results are available use up and down arrows to review and enter to select. Hu, D., and Helms, J. Scottish speak the Scots Gaelic language, while Irish speaks the Irish Gaelic. There is clearly a place in forensic science to develop a robust diagnostic tool to determine age, ancestry, appearance, relatedness and sex from DNA samples. Multiethnic GWAS reveals polygenic architecture of earlobe attachment. Previous studies have suggested that facial features such as attractiveness (Little et al., 2001; Fink and Penton-Voak, 2002), hair color (Wilde et al., 2014; Adhikari et al., 2016; Field et al., 2016; Hysi et al., 2018), eye color (Little et al., 2003; Wilde et al., 2014; Field et al., 2016) and skin pigmentation (Jablonski and Chaplin, 2000, 2010; Wilde et al., 2014; Field et al., 2016) may influence mate choice and/or have been under historical selection. doi: 10.1051/orthodfr/2009033. There is some evidence to suggest that there are additive genetic effects on nose shape involving SOX9, DCHS2, CASC17, PAX1, RUNX2, and GL13 and chin shape, SOX9 and ASPM. 36, 506511. Epigenomics 10, 105113. (2013). A general model of dioxin contamination in breast milk: results from a study on 94 women from the Caserta and Naples areas in Italy. Department of Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, KU Leuven, Belgium, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, United States. 396, 159168. Identification of five novel genetic loci related to facial morphology by genome-wide association studies. Surg. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002910, Djordjevic, J., Zhurov, A. I., and Richmond, S. (2016). 50:414. doi: 10.1038/s41588-018-0057-4, Claes, P., Walters, M., and Clement, J. (2017). J. Craniomaxillofac. Large-scale objective phenotyping of 3D facial morphology. doi: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.03.129, Wilkinson, C., Rynn, C., Peters, H., Taister, M., Kau, C. H., and Richmond, S. (2006). (2014). Behav. For the Scottish, they have Prince Charlie and the Argyle designs. Dental anomalies as part of the cleft spectrum. 1. doi: 10.1597/07-064.1, Merks, J. H., van Karnebeek, C. D., Caron, H. N., and Hennekam, R. C. (2003). doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2013.289, Howe, L. J., Lee, M. K., Sharp, G. C., Smith, G. D., St Pourcain, B., Shaffer, J. R., et al. Received: 06 July 2018; Accepted: 20 September 2018;Published: 16 October 2018. Who is the most beautiful woman in Ireland? 10:e1004724. 4:eaao4364. Mol. Sci. Most Scottish people have brown hair, (2003). For example, for our 2019 ethnicity estimates we knew that Scottish people typically got a lot of both Ireland & Scotland and England, Wales & Northwestern Europe in their results often almost a 50/50 split. Another mechanism via which environmental influences can affect facial traits is natural selection, where certain facial traits may have beneficial effects on reproductive fitness.

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